Books: 'Cognitive strategy use' – Grafiati (2024)

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This chapter provides an overview of age-related changes and stabilities in numerical cognition. For each component (i.e. approximate and exact number system, quantification, and arithmetic) of numerical cognition, we review changes in participants’ performance during normal and pathological aging in a wide variety of tasks (e.g. number comparison, subitizing, counting, and simple or complex arithmetic problem-solving). We discuss both behavioral and neural mechanisms underlying these performance variations. Moreover, we highlight the importance of taking into account strategic variations. Indeed, investigating strategy repertoire (i.e. how young and older adults accomplish numerical cognitive tasks), selection (i.e. how participants choose strategies on each problem), execution (i.e. how strategies are implemented once selected), and distribution (i.e. how often participants use each available strategy) enables to determine sources of aging effects and individual differences in numerical cognition. Finally, we discuss potential future research to further our understanding of age-related changes in numerical cognition.

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This chapter reviews age differences in metacognitive control, defined as behaviors based on the monitoring of cognitive systems and states with the goal of improving the quality of cognition, especially the likelihood of successful remembering. Metacognitive monitoring and control are promising means of improving older adults’ cognition and can compensate for age-related cognitive decline. A prototypical type of metacognitive control studied in aging research involves the self-testing procedure to guide allocation of study time and strategic effort. Older adults often fail to use this strategy even though it can be highly effective for them. Evidence regarding age differences in metacognitive control using more complicated multitrial learning tasks is mixed. The literature is still in its formative stages and age differences in observed metacognitive control should not be taken as signifying irremediable aging-related deficits. Issues with the existing body of evidence and suggestions for future research questions are highlighted.

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Psychology plays a key role in the success of strategy and is therefore important to the study of international security. There are four general approaches to the psychology of strategy. The first focuses on personality, and more specifically on individual differences, cognition, and the use of evolutionary psychology and neuroscience to investigate human nature. The second approach draws on deterrence theory, which considers how an actor can keep a target from doing something it would otherwise do. A political psychological perspective on deterrence consists of three elements. First, psychological approaches to deterrence reject stimulus–response models and instead lay emphasis on understanding cognition and emotion. Second, deterrence is a policy rather than a philosophy. Third, whereas normative theories explain how one ought to behave (and thus cannot be disconfirmed by evidence), psychological theories change in response to new evidence, such as with the development of prospect theory. The third aspect of strategic interaction involves learning and intelligence assessments. Based on this approach, how people learn, what they are likely to learn, and the problems of assessing the intentions and capabilities of others are central to strategy. The fourth and final approach is concerned with the strategy of group conflict, which has generated two waves of research: the first analyzed how material inequality or competition for resources gives rise to psychological forces that result in group cooperation and between-group competition, and the second added nonmaterial causes to explain group relations.

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The clinician’s goal for every adult with serious mental illness should be recovery, moving beyond symptom control toward the promotion of an individual’s functioning, autonomy, and sense of purpose. This chapter highlights some of the nonpharmacological, evidence-based practices that have been shown to further recovery for adults with serious mental illness. The case-based discussion highlights illness management, supported employment, supported housing, assertive community treatment, mobile crisis teams, cognitive–behavioral therapy for psychosis, peer support, and clubhouses as best practice models of care. Strategies to enhance medication adherence are discussed. The use of court-ordered assisted outpatient treatment as a strategy to prevent hospitalizations is also explored.

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This chapter describes ARC’s third strategy of employing mental models. This strategy fosters reasoning and thinking that reinforces the use of ARC’s organizational components and that maintains alignment with ARC’s five principles of effective service organizations. Reasoning and thinking are reflected in the mental representations of work experiences service providers hold, and these mental models guide priorities followed when providing services. Case examples are provided to illustrate work with mental models to influence organizational members’ thinking, reasoning, and subsequent actions to improve service quality and outcomes. This chapter reviews the empirical evidence for mental models, including research from social cognition and neuroscience. The description of this strategy highlights several activities and techniques used to explore and alter mental models. These activities foster examination of implicit assumptions and beliefs that help drive reasoning and thinking toward or away from ARC’s key organizational principles, tools, and desired OSCs.

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The monograph presents the results of sociological research on the project “The political culture of the Russian society in the transition to a new technological structure and implementation Of the strategy of scientific and technological development of the Russian Federation and the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation from 07.05.2018 № 204 «On national goals and strategic objectives of the Russian Federation for the period up to 2024»”. The all-Russian survey was conducted in May-June 2019 in 22 regions of the Russian Federation. The study of the structure and nature of citizens’ opinions on national development goals and digital society shows that the Russian society has formed the initial elements of the fundamental components of an innovative political culture: knowledge, beliefs and attitudes for the actual behavior of citizens in terms of the introduction and use of information and communication technologies and the implementation of national projects. The problematic situation is identified and described in the monograph, according to the author, requires a thought-out and verified program of political actions, both on the part of the Government of the Russian Federation and on the part of civil society institutions in order to create a high cognitive, labor motivation in this strategically decisive area of life of the Russian society. The urgency, scale and complexity of the tasks require the unification of the efforts of civil society with a leading role and strategic coordination of state actions. The monograph summarizes the results of sociological research on topical issues on the agenda of Russian society and the state, and can be useful for management personnel of state and municipal administration, production organizers, managers of social and educational institutions, researchers, University teachers, graduate students and students.

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This chapter focuses specifically on the neglected discursive and cognitive dimensions of the theory of ideology, as part of Critical Discourse Studies (CDS). Ideologies are defined as basic shared systems of social cognitions of groups. They control group attitudes (e.g. about immigration, abortion, divorce, etc.) and mental models of group members about specific events and experiences. Polarized (Us versus Them) ideological representations and their categories (identity, actions, goals, norms/values, reference groups, and resources) control all levels of ideological discourse (topics, lexicon, meanings, interaction, etc.). The overall strategy of ideological discourse is the enhancement of Our Good Things, and Their Bad Things, and the Mitigation of Our Bad Things and Their Good Things, at all levels of discourse structure—the so-called Ideological Square. A debate in British Parliament on Asylum Seekers is used as an illustration of the theory.

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The primary mission assigned to the British Army from the 1950s until the end of the Cold War was deterring Soviet aggression in Europe by demonstrating the will and capability to fight with nuclear weapons in defence of NATO territory. This ‘surreal’ mission was unlike any other in history, and raised a number of conceptual and practical difficulties. This book provides the first comprehensive study on how the British Army imagined the character of a future nuclear land warfare, and how it planned to fight it. Based on new archival evidence, the book analyses British thinking about the political and military utility of tactical nuclear weapons, the role of land forces within NATO strategy, the development of theories of tactical nuclear warfare, how nuclear war was taught at the Staff College, the Army’s use of operational research, and the evolution of the Army’s nuclear war-fighting doctrine. The book argues that the British Army was largely successful in adapting to its new nuclear mission in Germany, but that it displayed a cognitive dissonance when faced with some of the more uncomfortable realities of nuclear war.

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An expert in cybersecurity lays out an evidence-based approach for assessing user cyber risk and achieving organizational cyber resilience. Phishing is the single biggest threat to cybersecurity, persuading even experienced users to click on hyperlinks and attachments in emails that conceal malware. Phishing has been responsible for every major cyber breach, from the infamous Sony hack in 2014 to the 2017 hack of the Democratic National Committee and the more recent Colonial Pipleline breach. The cybersecurity community's response has been intensive user training (often followed by user blaming), which has proven completely ineffective: the hacks keep coming. In The Weakest Link, cybersecurity expert Arun Vishwanath offers a new, evidence-based approach for detecting and defending against phishing—an approach that doesn't rely on continual training and retraining but provides a way to diagnose user vulnerability. Vishwanath explains how organizations can build a culture of cyber safety. He presents a Cyber Risk Survey (CRS) to help managers understand which users are at risk and why. Underlying CRS is the Suspicion, Cognition, Automaticity Model (SCAM), which specifies the user thoughts and actions that lead to either deception by or detection of phishing come-ons. He describes in detail how to implement these frameworks, discussing relevant insights from cognitive and behavioral science, and then presents case studies of organizations that have successfully deployed the CRS to achieve cyber resilience. These range from a growing wealth management company with twenty regional offices to a small Pennsylvania nonprofit with forty-five employees. The Weakest Link will revolutionize the way managers approach cyber security, replacing the current one-size-fits-all methodology with a strategy that targets specific user vulnerabilities.

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This chapter explores the association between intimate relationship functioning and psychopathology. It begins with a review of the literature on intimate relationship functioning and how it is correlated with the prevalence and incidence of psychopathology, focusing on the results of cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. It then considers the literature on couple-based interventions as treatments for specific forms of psychopathology such as mood disorders, substance use disorders, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), obsessive-compulsive disorder, and anorexia nervosa. The chapter focuses on three couple-based interventions, namely, cognitive-behavioral couple therapy, emotion-focused couple therapy, and strategic approaches to couple therapy. It concludes by outlining directions for future research to better understand the link between intimate relationship functioning and psychopathology.

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Chapter 9 rehearses Aristotle’s somewhat unsystematic remarks about emotion education. Moreover, the chapter subjects to critical scrutiny six different discourses on emotion education in addition to Aristotle’s: care ethics; social and emotional learning; positive psychology; emotion-regulation discourse; academic-emotions discourse; and social intuitionism. Four differential criteria are used to analyse the content of the discourses: valence of emotions to be educated; value ontology; general aims of emotion education; and self-related goals. Possible criticisms of all the discourses are presented. Subsequently, seven strategies of emotion education (behavioural strategies; ethos modification and emotion contagion; cognitive reframing; service learning/habituation; direct teaching; role modelling; and the arts) are introduced to explore how the seven discourses avail themselves of each strategy. It is argued that there is considerably more convergence in the practical strategies than there is in the theoretical underpinnings of the seven discourses.

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Dialectical thinking has been investigated together with creativity for decades. This chapter organizes the literature by contrasting the different conceptualizations of dialectical thinking used to study creativity. Dialectical thinking has been defined quite differently from a variety of theoretical perspectives. From the Hegelian perspective, dialectical thinking has come to mean the apex of formal thinking or a particular cognitive strategy. Naïve or East Asian dialectical thinking, by contrast, includes a sense that contradictions exist that need not be resolved. In this chapter, these conceptions of dialectical thinking are compared and contrasted. The chapter (1) discusses how creativity may be differentially impacted by different kinds of dialectical thinking, (2) describes cultural differences for acceptance-oriented (naïve) dialectical thinking, (3) reviews the literature on concepts related to dialectical thinking, (4) points out gaps in current theory and research, and (5) recommends future cross-cultural and within-culture research.

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The reduction of mental phenomena to neurochemistry and neural connectivity is a theoretical position called “greedy reductionism.” Although reduction can be an illuminating research strategy, it should not be used to downplay research at mental levels or to promote theories of mental disorder that give primacy only to neurochemistry and neuroconnectivity. Although mind depends on brain, mental activity has emergent properties that cannot be explained reductively. This explanatory gap may help explain why neuroscience and cognitive science provide an incomplete model of the mind. This chapter evaluates the Research Domain Criteria system and examines the current state of neuroscience. Despite dramatic progress during recent decades, the field remains in its infancy. The most striking advances have been in neuroimaging. Although there are correlations between clinical observations and brain imaging, many findings remain nonspecific. Similar limitations apply to other areas of biological research on neurotransmitters, the neural “connectome,” and neuropsychology.

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This chapter describes the four main sources of individual differences in arithmetic that have been identified through research with children and adults. Numerical quantitative knowledge invokes basic cognitive processes that are either numerically specific or are recruited to be used in quantitative tasks (e.g. subitizing, discrimination acuity for approximate quantities). Attentional skills, including executive attention and various aspects of working memory are important, especially for more complex procedures. Linguistic knowledge is used within arithmetic to learn number system rules and structures, specific number words, and in developing and executing counting processes. Strategic abilities, which may reflect general planning and awareness skills, are involved in selecting procedures and solving problems adaptively. Other important sources of individual differences include automaticity of knowledge related to practice, experiences outside school, and the specific language spoken. Suggestions are made for further research that would be helpful in establishing a full picture of individual differences in arithmetic.

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Impairment in functional outcome is commonly observed even when patients are euthymic and includes multiple areas of functioning. Many factors such as sociodemographic, clinical, pharmacological, and neurocognitive variables have been associated with functional impairment. The term ‘functional remediation’ has been coined to define an innovative strategy aimed at targeting the critical factors for full psychosocial adjustment and functional recovery in the context of psychoses and more specifically bipolar disorders. Functional remediation involves not only neurocognitive techniques and training but also psychoeducation on cognition-related issues and problem-solving within an ecological framework. The inclusion of context processing, performance monitoring, encoding, and manipulation of the information as well as fostering compensatory strategies must be included in the functional remediation intervention. In this regard, real-world problems affecting daily functioning are used for bipolar disorder to be transferred to daily practice.

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No large industrial company has ever grown as fast as Nokia did in the 1990s and few have fallen quite as rapidly: Nokia’s mobile phone business went from posting record results in 2007 to almost dragging the whole company into bankruptcy in 2012. The opening chapter sets the scene with a brief history of Nokia’s journey. Three different lines of theoretical reasoning which could explain Nokia’s decline are discussed: unavoidable Schumpeterian creative destruction, organizational evolution gone astray, and a failure of managerial volition. The CORE dimensions used in the analysis of each chapter are introduced: Cognition (what leaders saw, how they interpreted it, conclusions they drew, and decisions made); Organization (operational actions, managers’ responsibilities, and relationships in the firm); Relationships (interpersonal element of how leaders complement each other, how well they work together, and the ambitions they harbor); and Emotions (critical to the quality of strategic sense-making and collective commitment).

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The mechanism for maintaining balance in man is complex. Vision, proprioception, and vestibular inputs are integrated in the central nervous system, and modulated by activity from the cerebellum, the extrapyramidal system, the reticular formation, and the cortex. This integrated, modulated information provides one mechanism for control of oculomotor activity, controls posture, gait, and motor skills and allows perception of the head and body in space. Recent evidence also supports an effect upon autonomic function, cognition, and emotion. The complexity of the system is such that pathology in a variety of different bodily systems, including the endocrine system, the cardiovascular system, and the haemopoietic system, can impact upon vestibular activity, in addition to primary otological and neurological pathology.Patients with dysfunction in the vestibular end-organs or vestibular pathways commonly complain of symptoms of dizziness, vertigo, unsteadiness, light-headedness, imbalance, and a plethora of synonyms associated with a sense of instability. Not infrequently, in an attempt to define their ‘unphysiological’ experience, patients use rather vague and imprecise semantics. The clinical distinction between dizziness, a symptom of non-specific pathological significance, and vertigo, a hallucination or illusion of movement, is rarely made, although the latter is a cardinal manifestation of a disorder of the vestibular system (Dix 1973). Ten to 20 per cent of all ‘dizzy’ patients are reportedly seen in neurology clinics (Dieterish 2004), therefore it behoves the neurologist to have a clear diagnostic strategy, including knowledge of detailed neuro-otological examination, to enable appropriate diagnosis and management of the patient with vestibular symptoms.

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Challenging problems both attract and repel us. They frustrate us, accelerate our pulses, cause ulcers, and perhaps even curtail our lifespans. On the other hand, the knotty problems of life offer us food for thought, sustaining our creativity, and adding emotional spice to the human experience. We encounter difficult tasks day in and day out. The solutions to these problems must be sought with resourcefulness and creativity, for until now we have had little insight into the nature of these tasks, and even less into methods for resolving them. This unique book explores the nature of challenging problems in all walks of life, and describes the creative techniques for addressing them. It is particularly relevant for problems that admit no obvious solution, whether they concern scientific knowledge, technology, the arts, or social situations. By understanding the dynamics of problem solving in general, the author argues, we can better organize the pursuit of specific projects. The initial phase involves crystallizing our objectives and developing a coherent plan. The next step is to evaluate the results and determine whether the work should be concluded, begun anew, or given up altogether. With this general strategy, even seemingly overwhelming problems can be approached systematically and efficiently. The author goes beyond the normal distinction between routine and innovative activities, defining the role of creativity in novel decision-making. In addition, he distills the existing literature on creativity, innovation, and project management to present a concise set of strategies and practices that can be applied in a myriad of settings ranging from university laboratories to corporate planning centers. For the sake of concreteness, a number of examples from research and development environments demonstrate the book's basic principles in action, showing how even the most difficult problems can yield to knowledgeable ingenuity. Written in a clear, readable style, Essence of Creativity will appeal to a broad spectrum of readers: engineers, business managers, computer scientists, executives, cognitive psychologists, and educators in many fields, as well as general readers seeking effective ways to handle difficult problems.

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The Brain from Inside Out takes a critical look at contemporary brain research and reminds us that theoretical framework does matter. Current technology-driven neuroscience is still largely fueled by an empiricist philosophy assuming that the brain’s goal is to perceive, represent the world, and learn the truth. An inevitable consequence of this framework is the assumption of a decision-making homunculus wedged between our perception and actions. In contrast, The Brain from Inside Out advocates that the brain’s fundamental function is to induce actions and predict the consequences of those actions to support the survival and prosperity of the brain’s host. Brains constantly test their hypotheses by producing actions rather than searching for the veridical objective world. Only actions can provide a second opinion about the relevance of the sensory inputs and provide meaning for and interpretation of those inputs. In this inside-out framework, it is not sensations that teach the brain and build up its circuits. Instead, the brain comes with a preconfigured and self-organized dynamics that constrains how it acts and views the world. Both its anatomical and physiological organizations are characterized by an enormous diversity which spans several orders of magnitude. The two ends of this continuous landscape give rise to apparently distinct qualitative features. A small core of strongly interconnected, highly active neurons provides fast and “good-enough” answers in needy situations by generalizations, whereas detailed and precise solutions rely on the contribution of the more isolated and sluggish majority. In this non-egalitarian organization, preexisting nonsense brain patterns become meaningful through action-based experience. The inside-out framework offers an alternative strategy to investigate how brain operations give rise to our cognitive faculties, as opposed to the outside-in approach that explores how our preconceived ideas map onto brain structures.

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The aim of the e-book is to present the theoretical, cognitive and practical aspects of the essence and complexity of operational management in a production company. The presented modern production methods together with the challenges and problems of contemporary enterprises should better help to understand the issues of sustainable development, with particular emphasis on waste. The book consists of six chapters devoted to relevant and topic issues relating to the core business of an industrial enterprise. Chapter 1 The nature of the industrial enterprise is an introduction to further considerations and deals with the essence of the basic aspects of the company. Both popular and less known definitions of an enterprise, its features, functions and principles of operation are presented. An important part of the chapter is the presentation and formulation of strategic, tactical and operational goals. Moreover, the division of enterprises is presented with the use of various criteria and the features of the industrial market, which make it distinct. Chapter 2 The operational management evolution and its role in the industrial enterprise discusses the evolution and concept of production and operational management. The management levels were also presented, indicating their most important functions. An integral part of the chapter is the essence of the production system, viewed through the prism of the five elements. Chapter 3 Functions and role in operations management presents the issues concerning the organization of production processes, production capacity and inventory management. This part also presents considerations on cooperation and collaboration between enterprises in the process of creating value. Chapter 4 Traditional methods used in operational activities focuses on methods such as benchmarking, outsourcing, core competences, JIT, MPR I and MRP II, as well as TQM and kaizen. Knowledge of these methods should contribute to understanding the activities of modern enterprises, the way of company functioning, the realization of production activities, as well as aspects related to building a competitive position. Chapter 5 Modern methods used in production-operations management discusses the less common and less frequently used production methods, based on a modern and innovative approach. In particular, it was focused on: Shop Floor Control and cooperative manufacturing, environment-conscious manufacturing (ECM) and life-cycle assessment ( LCA), waste management and recycling, Electronic Data Interchange (EDI), virtual enterprise, World Class Manufacturing (WCM), Quality Function Deployment (QFD) and House of Quality (HOQ), theory of constraints (TOC), Drum Buffer Rope (DBR), group technology (GT) and cellular manufacturing (CM), Demand Chain Management and competitive intelligence (CI). In the last section discusses: the role of sustainable statistical process control and Computer-Aided Process Planning in context formatting of information management. Chapter 6 Problems of sustainable development and challenges related to production and operations management describes the problem and challenges related to production and operations activities. In particular, attention was paid to the threats related to changes in global warming, the growing scale of waste, or the processes of globalization. It was pointed out that the emerging problem may be both a threat and a chance for the development of enterprises. An integral part of the chapter are also considerations on technical progress, innovation and the importance of human capital in operational activities.

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The quality of data collected in official spatial databases is crucial in making strategic decisions as well as in the implementation of planning and design works. Awareness of the level of the quality of these data is also important for individual users of official spatial data. The author presents methods and models of description and evaluation of the quality of spatial data collected in public registers. Data describing the space in the highest degree of detail, which are collected in three databases: land and buildings registry (EGiB), geodetic registry of the land infrastructure network (GESUT) and in database of topographic objects (BDOT500) were analyzed. The results of the research concerned selected aspects of activities in terms of the spatial data quality. These activities include: the assessment of the accuracy of data collected in official spatial databases; determination of the uncertainty of the area of registry parcels, analysis of the risk of damage to the underground infrastructure network due to the quality of spatial data, construction of the quality model of data collected in official databases and visualization of the phenomenon of uncertainty in spatial data. The evaluation of the accuracy of data collected in official, large-scale spatial databases was based on a representative sample of data. The test sample was a set of deviations of coordinates with three variables dX, dY and Dl – deviations from the X and Y coordinates and the length of the point offset vector of the test sample in relation to its position recognized as a faultless. The compatibility of empirical data accuracy distributions with models (theoretical distributions of random variables) was investigated and also the accuracy of the spatial data has been assessed by means of the methods resistant to the outliers. In the process of determination of the accuracy of spatial data collected in public registers, the author’s solution was used – resistant method of the relative frequency. Weight functions, which modify (to varying degree) the sizes of the vectors Dl – the lengths of the points offset vector of the test sample in relation to their position recognized as a faultless were proposed. From the scope of the uncertainty of estimation of the area of registry parcels the impact of the errors of the geodetic network points was determined (points of reference and of the higher class networks) and the effect of the correlation between the coordinates of the same point on the accuracy of the determined plot area. The scope of the correction was determined (in EGiB database) of the plots area, calculated on the basis of re-measurements, performed using equivalent techniques (in terms of accuracy). The analysis of the risk of damage to the underground infrastructure network due to the low quality of spatial data is another research topic presented in the paper. Three main factors have been identified that influence the value of this risk: incompleteness of spatial data sets and insufficient accuracy of determination of the horizontal and vertical position of underground infrastructure. A method for estimation of the project risk has been developed (quantitative and qualitative) and the author’s risk estimation technique, based on the idea of fuzzy logic was proposed. Maps (2D and 3D) of the risk of damage to the underground infrastructure network were developed in the form of large-scale thematic maps, presenting the design risk in qualitative and quantitative form. The data quality model is a set of rules used to describe the quality of these data sets. The model that has been proposed defines a standardized approach for assessing and reporting the quality of EGiB, GESUT and BDOT500 spatial data bases. Quantitative and qualitative rules (automatic, office and field) of data sets control were defined. The minimum sample size and the number of eligible nonconformities in random samples were determined. The data quality elements were described using the following descriptors: range, measure, result, and type and unit of value. Data quality studies were performed according to the users needs. The values of impact weights were determined by the hierarchical analytical process method (AHP). The harmonization of conceptual models of EGiB, GESUT and BDOT500 databases with BDOT10k database was analysed too. It was found that the downloading and supplying of the information in BDOT10k creation and update processes from the analyzed registers are limited. An effective approach to providing spatial data sets users with information concerning data uncertainty are cartographic visualization techniques. Based on the author’s own experience and research works on the quality of official spatial database data examination, the set of methods for visualization of the uncertainty of data bases EGiB, GESUT and BDOT500 was defined. This set includes visualization techniques designed to present three types of uncertainty: location, attribute values and time. Uncertainty of the position was defined (for surface, line, and point objects) using several (three to five) visual variables. Uncertainty of attribute values and time uncertainty, describing (for example) completeness or timeliness of sets, are presented by means of three graphical variables. The research problems presented in the paper are of cognitive and application importance. They indicate on the possibility of effective evaluation of the quality of spatial data collected in public registers and may be an important element of the expert system.